1	PRESCRIPTION FOR EXTINCTION: The Plight of Asia’s Tigers and Bears An Examination of the Impact of Traditional Chinese Medicine on Wildlife Populations
2	Introduction TCM → decline in wildlife, as many of its medicinal compounds rely upon animal extracts At present limited to Asia → other parts of the world. In 1994, China → 2,200 traditional medicine factories and employed in related arenas, 460,000 people (Mainka, S.A., J.A. Mills, 1985) Annual illegal trade in wildlife products ~ 5-10 billion USD + significant proportion → TCM demands (Still, J., 2003) Increasingly important for measures to be implemented if their destruction is to be prevented
3	Introduction laws concerning wildlife trade → revised + ↑ enforced, punishment for transgression → more consequential Greater funding for research into alternatives Notion of urgency needs to be more seriously accorded to this matter. Many wildlife pops currently in Appendix I of CITES (species threatened with extinction; trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances)
4	Introduction Among these, many favored as poaching targets due to imp in TCM. Asian tiger and bear populations need serious protection The history of their implication in Eastern medical practice and the consequent crises they currently face will be examined in this report
5	Historical Background TCM dates back thousands of years. Earliest records → Emperor Shen Nong → therapeutic elements of plants (Mainka, S.A., J.A. Mills, 1995) Official doctrine → Zhou dynasty (1122 B.C) and it was not until the Han period (206-220 B.C.) that specific therapeutic remedies were actually made available (Ibid)
6	Historical Background TCM → active throughout upcoming centuries + ↑ popularity during reign of Mao Zedong, who advocated its importance. transfer of med info to West → Ming dynasty (1368-1644), but popularity grew w Mao → integration of Eastern principles into W.med (Mainka, S.A., J.A. Mills, 1992) Mao’s communist regime → ↓ China’s tiger pop for 2 other reasons 1-1949 anti-pest campaign (Chinese agriculture) (50s + 60s ~ 3000 tiger skins) (Nowell, K., 2004) 2-Mao’s communist regime → migration out of China → throughout Asia. With them, the Chinese brought knowledge, culture + philosophies of medical practice (Ibid)
7	Current Affairs Recently - resurgence of interest in TCM. (2003) estimate >25% pop uses meds associated w TCM (Still, J., 2003) -in Asiatic culture affiliated w status + power -cultural significance = means to preserve Eastern tradition in changing, W-dominated world. -response to shortcomings in W med + ↑ used in growing Asian pops of W hemisphere
8	Current Affairs In East Asian pops, ++ China → political change → ↑ per cap income → ↑ freedom possess sacred items for health preservation + symbol of wealth + power (Yi-Ming, L., 1998) In Russia → free-market economy → ↓income → threat to Russia’s tiger pop General rule = countries w wild tiger = poor → ↑ poaching + illegal trade (ie valuable tiger bone) (Mainka, S.A., J.A. Mills, 1995)
9	"~13%" ~13% TCM meds require animal derivatives (Still, J, 2003) ++ difficult → conclusions re:efficacy vast majority of animal products cuz usually part of complex remedy (Still, J., 2003) ++++ difficult issue to address = culturally entrenched practices associated with wildlife exploitation. Even if we were to prove the inefficacity → cultural tendencies and attitudes resistant to change In most Asian countries, animals = exploitable resource + value based on utility (Mainka, S.A., J.A. Mills, 1995) Animal trophies → tributary gifts
10	"Wildlife foods = ++ quality..." Wildlife foods = ++ quality → better health (Yi-Ming, L., 1998) High demand → ‘delicacy’ for the wealthy + despite prohibitory laws,common menu items (Vietnam) (Ibid) Same ancient legends at base of TCM = sources of belief in magical powers attributed to tiger → sometimes kept by farmers as talismans to protect produce (Plowden, C., D. Bowles, 1997) Tiger teeth + claws sold in gold stores → amulets and pendants to ward off evil spirits (Shepard, C.R., N. Magnus, 2004)
11	The Tiger: Panthera tigris sp. Despite tiger’s enlistment (1975) appendix I, CITES → 5 of 8 subspecies. 3 of these → extinction = impending and major threat (Mills, J., P. Jackson)
12	Introduction Surviving subspecies (1994) estimation: 30-80 South China tigers: Panthera tigris amoyensis
13	"150 Siberian or Amur tigers" 150 Siberian or Amur tigers: Panthera tigris altaica
14	"400-500 Sumatran tigers:" 400-500 Sumatran tigers: Panthera tigris sumatrae
15	Reasons for ↓ in Tiger Populations 1-recent growth in world pops + accompanying destruction of natural habitat 2-purported threat to human pops 3-destruction of livestock in rural regions of Asia 4- imp ascribed to TB (primarily), organs + other body parts promoted +++TCM (Shepard, C.R., N. Magnus, 2004)
16	Medicinal uses 1st ref to TB in TCM doctrine → 1500 yrs → herbal compendium Mingyi Bielu or Records of Famous Physicians (Nowell, 2004) ~ Every part useful in TCM (Mills, Jackson, 1994; Still, 2003; Nowell, 2004) -Eyeballs - epilepsy -tail - various skin diseases -bile - convulsions in children -whiskers – toothache -urine - rheumatism -fecal matter - hemorrhoids -penis - imp component of powerful sexual tonic -brain - laziness and acne -BONE (+++humerus) most sacred + most useful
17	Tiger Bone Primary use → Tx rheumatism Also alleviates weakness, stiffness, paralysis ++ lower back + legs (Mills, J., Jackson, P) Ground up → pills, plasters +decoctions Segmented + soaked in wine. 10 mL → relief from headaches + rheumatic discomforts Active ingredients → Ca++ + protein Daily dose: rheumatic Tx ~ 3-6/day. -at this rate → 1-2kg/yr -each tiger ~ 20 kg
18	Prices and Trade High market value maintains majority of wildlife destruction throughout Asia (Pratt et al., 2004) Profits from one average tiger skeleton → > 10 yrs salary in 7 of 14 tiger range states (Mills, J., Jackson, P., 1994) (China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, Bangladesh, Vietnam, India, Bhutan, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and North Korea) Sells int’l black market from 12-375 US$/kg (Mainka, S.A., Mills, J.A)
19	"extent of trade in tiger..." extent of trade in tiger products not known bc vast majority within the black market (Von Hippel, 2002) Much of data → CITES reports + some CITES parties have policy of not reporting trade in tiger if certain criteria not met (Mills, J., Jackson, P., 1994) -if not specifically recognized as tiger product -if assumed counterfeit → report likely excluded (protocols have changed in many countries) -some claim to contain tiger bi-product do not -some do contain tiger product + don’t mention it -forensic techniques to detect TB do not yet exist -certain major exporters not CITES members → their data goes unreported
20	"China is major importer," China is major importer, exporter + consumer of TB products 1990-92 → exported > 27 million units of tiger medicines + wine (Mainka, S.A., Mills, J.A., 1995) 1970-1993 - Indonesia (largest exporter of TB in the world) → >3994kg TB → 2619kg exported after became CITES member (1979) (Ibid; Shepard et al., 2004) Other major importers:Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and the USA
21	Legal Protection and Control May 23, 1993 China → prohibition on importation, exportation, sale, purchase or transport of TB into China use of all by-products → discontinued in all meds Meds produced + available at that point → forbidden to be sold and ordered disposed of w/in 6 mths (Yi-Ming et al., 1998) Destruction of millions of products containing or purporting to contain tiger parts
22	"Ban = successful in ↓..." Ban = successful in ↓ open market trade. -one study → no tiger products in 110 TCM trade market stalls surveyed btw 1994-6 (Yi-Ming et al., 1998) Number of pharm companies producing TCM meds ↓ ++ -another study → raw bone preps available in 59% targeted pharmacies in early 90s → ↓ by late 90s → < 1% (Nowell, 2004)
23	"1972," 1972, national legislation → Indonesia → protect Sumatran tiger -1990 - updated w passage of Act of the Republic of Indonesia on Conservation of Living Resources and Ecosystems → Sumatran tiger gets full protection (Plowden et al., 1997) -1992 → declare possession of all tiger “trophies, mounts or other parts” + for these - obtain permits (Ibid) 1969 - Siberian tiger listed as “rare and precious species” in the Ministry of Forestry documents. 1975 - South tiger obtains 1st protection and listed in Regulation Regarding the Protection of Wildlife Resources as protected by controlled hunting. 1979 - South China tiger finally obtains full protection. By 1982, only 150-200 remain (Tilson et al., 1997)
24	"1987," 1987, last remaining sub-species of tiger (Siberian/Amur tiger) added to Appendix I of CITES → officially complete interdiction on tiger trade Despite ↑ intolerance of poaching, late 1990s shows little indication of a major ↓ in tiger poaching (Nowell, 2004)
25	Global Tiger Forum March 1994 – 11 of Asia’s range states come tog → Global Tiger Forum inter-gov’t + int’l org which includes members who have voluntarily united w common goal → protecting limited pop Asian tigers (www.globaltiger.org/) supports workshops on wildlife management, training officers re: wildlife + habitat conservation, survey + data collection + research into forensic techs for TB identification
26	Progress Tighter regulation of trade - successful re:domestic + int’l open-market trade (Nowell, 2004) -greater enforcement of laws internationally -to joining of both more range and non-range consumer states to CITES (late 1990s - Cambodia + Myanmar → CITES → only Lao PRD, Bhutan + N Korea non-member range-states (China → 1981) Despite this, no evidence that underground trade or poaching ↓ -impossibility to obtaining precise data -black market tiger trade is slowly being transformed into “army of ants” trade → large no people smuggling small vols of goods through variety of channels (Nowell, 2004)
27	Alternatives Controlled farming attempted in some regions of Asia China + Thailand - large captive tiger pops once considered ‘farms’ (Nowell, 2004) Established late 80s, early 90s following Chinese govt’s declaration to replete ↓ wildlife stock meds. Not a viable solution -supporters → stable, legal bone source → ease poaching pressures -Mills + Jackson (1994)→ 2 reasons should be discouraged: 1- urgency to save wild tiger + its natural habitat → attention should be exclusively focused on this aspect of the problem. Farming tigers risks diverting focus to captive tigers and, consequently, taking it away from wild tigers. 2- dishonest traders can pass off wild tiger bones from farms → ↑ commercial demand for TB and concomitantly ↑ poaching pressure, possibly enough to see the complete disappearance of the wild tiger
28	Alternatives: Myospalax spp As a substitute for TB, China has been promoting the use of sailong gu, which is bone from a common mole rat (Nowell, 2004)
29	The Bear (Ursus spp.)
30	Introduction Use of bear products in TCM dates back 3000 yrs (Mills, 1992) With rhino horn, ginseng + deer musk, bear bile is considered among the most powerful of traditional cures (Ibid) Exploitation of bears for TCM problematic for diff reasons than those of tiger. China - bypass wildlife exploitation + legal probs → instauration of bear farming. -began w 1985 gov’t decision to replenish depleted wildlife products
31	Introduction Bear farming for bile → exploitation of bears + makes bile available to larger pop at a ↓ cost → used ++ regularly in a ++ no of med compounds → ↑ demand (Mills, 1992) Also, require replacement → progeny of captive bears but ↑ demands for bile + ↑ no of farms = need for wild bears to overcome the population discrepancy
32	"Derivatives of all bear subspecies..." Derivatives of all bear subspecies acceptable but preference is undoubtedly for Asiatic black (Selenarctos thibetanus) and Brown bears (Ursus arctos) (Mainka, S.A, J.A. Mills, 1995)
33	"Number Asiatic black bears still..." Number Asiatic black bears still in the wild → ? but surely ↓ as a function of demand + loss of habitat (Mills, 1992) Pop of brown bears, although wide-spread, is also ↓ principally → demand American Black Bear - beginning to face ↑ grim future. -reflects TCM’s impact int’l. N American bears ↑ popular target for poaching (Twiss et al., 1999) -Bears from all corners of the world will be used to supply demand, stem ++ from S Korea, Taiwan and Japan (Mills, 1992)
34	Medicinal Uses Most bear parts are used Components of >74 med preparations (Mainka, S.A., J.A. Mills, 1995) TCM prescribes bear bile, fat, meat, paws, spinal cord, blood and bones as Tx for intestinal + cardiac disease, parasite + bacterial infs, allergies, pain, high blood pressure, certain cancers etc (Mills, 1992)
35	Bear’s Bile Bear bile - ++ exploited for analgesic + antipyretic properties Tx: burns, fever, internal bleeding, hemorrhoids, stomach ulcers and gallbladder diseases (Mainka, S.A., Mills, J.A., 1995) scientifically proven healing properties for Tx human liver disease (Mills, 1992) Active ingredient = tauro-ursodeoxycholic acid (USDA) + is widely used in W med to dissolve gallstones in the place of Cx (Mainka, S.A., Mills, J.A., 1995)
36	Legal Control, Trade and Prices CITES regulates int’l trade in bear parts, but much remains to be done regarding securing such interactions → largely due to principal consumer countries not being CITES members (South Korea + Taiwan) Smuggling facilitated bc bear gallbladders closely resemble other unprotected species. Diff only possible w lab tests → not feasible in most situations. This opens market to other countries l → less-desired bear subspecies can be readily sold.
37	"Because of this," Because of this, in 1992, the American Black Bear added to Appendix II of CITES (species not necessarily threatened w extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in to avoid utilization incompatible w their survival) (Twiss et al., 1999)
38	"USA + Canada → efforts..." USA + Canada → efforts to control domestic involvement in trade and depletion of wildlife in N America. The “Bear Protection Act” was proposed 1997 → 2000 → 2001 -will make all import, export and interstate commerce of gall-bladders illegal throughout US (Roberts, 1997) In Canada, management of bears is provincial matter (Twiss et al., 1999) Laws vary as function of province → loopholes → trade continues more easily -ex illegal to sell bear gallbladders in every province except PEI + Nova Scotia but possession permitted in certain provinces. If found w bear gall-bladder, before charges could be pressed, enforcement officers must prove that merchandise not from a province or jurisdiction which permits sale (Ibid)
39	"Federal legislation responsible for implementation..." Federal legislation responsible for implementation of CITES regulations → inadequately enforced Many other loopholes associated w controlled int’l bear trade beyond those related to N American legislature These are very similar in nature to those discussed in the tiger trade
40	The Asian Solution: Bear farming Current soln to prob of ↓ wildlife pops, esp in China 1 bear in captivity → production of bile = 40-50 wild bears (Mainka, S.A., J.A. Mills, 1995) Each bear ~70 mL of bile/day + annual prod of ~ 3 kgs (Mills, 1992) 2002: ~ 9000 bears on 167 bile-milking farms (Still, 2003)
41	"Inhumane conditions." Inhumane conditions. Cages barely large enough to house their bodies (Mills, 1992) Has become standard agricultural practice → little attention to the animal welfare
42	"Consequently," Consequently, some cages have bars for floors, and are suspended from ceilings to facilitate milking
43	"Marsupialization → age of 3" Marsupialization → age of 3 Abdomen incised → tube implanted in gallbladder → bile drained from bear as soon as produced (Mills, 1992) Collected before each meal → twice a day (Mainka, S.A., J.A. Mills, 1995)
44	"Once extracted → slowly baked..." Once extracted → slowly baked into crystalline form + sold as such or further transformed into various meds (Mills, 1992) Once bears cease adequate bile prod → no longer useful Has been suggested → killed and other body parts are harvested (Roberts, 1997) -single bear paw can be sold for several hundred dollars (Ibid)
45	Alternatives possible to replace bear bile w pig bile Also 54 herbal remedies → legitimate substitutes (Still, 2003) synthetic compound available (identical properties to bear bile USDA) + ↓ costly BUT synthetic substitute ↓ appealing TCM advocates
46	Alternatives Consequences ? -Bears will continue in captivity, in unacceptable conditions +continue to undergo inhumane manipulations -Bears in the wild will continue to disappear - poachers will pawn off trophies under guise of gov’t farm product -Attention concentrated on making bear industry ↑ efficient + ↑ lucrative will hinder conservation efforts + Asia’s wild bear pops will continue to suffer
47	Conclusion Countries implicated in tiger and bear trade and +not yet CITES members → encouraged to join (Mills,J., Jackson, P., 1994) Domestic legislation in Asian countries needs to be more seriously enforced Adequate penalties should generally be effective in reinforcing observance of the law Judiciaries of implicated countries → informed of significance + consequences of poaching Supply them w documentation referring to previous convictions of poachers and illegal traders that will encourage sentencing to more adequately reflect the crime (Ibid)
48	Conclusion Although adherence to CITES regulations appears to have improved, fed gov’ts need to invest + $ into enforcement, ++ supplier countries Implies creation of enforcement units specialized in matters of illegal trade + poaching This is ++ important in China whose underground trade network is likely among the most highly organized given its pivotal role in wildlife trade